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Verkuijl, H.

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Verkuijl
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Verkuijl, H.

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1997 - 1999112000 - 200313
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    Farmers' wheat seed sources and seed management in Chilalo Awraja, Ethiopia
    (CIMMYT, 1998) Regassa Ensermu; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; Mohammed Hasenna; Alemayehu, Z.
    This study describes the Ethiopian wheat seed system, identifies how farmers acquire and exchange wheat seed, explores problems related to farmers' acquisition and transfer of wheat seed, documents the status of previously released bread wheat varieties, and examines the effectiveness of the seed testing and release mechanism. A multistage stratified sampling design was used in selecting farmers for a formal survey in Chilalo Awraja, a major wheat-growing area. Logit analysis was used to stablish relationships and draw conclusions about farmers' seed management and adoption of improved wheats. The formal sector produces and distributes only 15% of the improved seed requirement of the country. Most farmers rely on other farmers and local markets to replace seed, obtain new seed, and obtain information on wheat varieties. The weighted average age of more than 10 years for varieties in the study area reflects a poorly developed seed industry and ineffective extension service. Seed industry reform, as well as support from research and extension, could rectify this situation. The extension system should pay more attention to informing farmers about the precise characteristics of their varieties and their correct adaptation zones. Varieties must be deversified over time and space and targeted carefully to production zones. Breeders should maintain older varieties, which appear to possess some desirable traits that new varieties lack. the current stringent variety release mechanism needs to be reviewed, and the release committee should include farmers and representatives of the private sector. Before the economic reform of 1991, publicly owned and collective farms obtained most of the limited certified seed that was available, and they also received new seed more quickly. This preferential treatment limited the impact of breeding gains for farmers and the national economy at large. Recent changes in the seed industry, such as the entry of private firms, creation of National Seed Industry Agency, and strengthening of the national extension service should improve farmers access to improve seed. These changes would be even more effective if policies and an institutional and legal framework could be developed to link the formal and informal seed sectors so that they could function in a complementary way.
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    The seed industry for dryland crops in Eastern Kenya
    (CIMMYT, 2003) Muhammad, L.; Njoroge, K.; Bett, C.; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; De Groote, H.
    The development and promotion of improved crop varieties as well as efficient seed production, distribution, and marketing systems have contributed significantly to increased agricultural production and food security in Kenya. However, these impacts have not been replicated in the semi-arid midlands due to climatic, soil, and institutional factors. Following the liberalization of agriculture in the late 1980s, there has been greater participation of the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and voluntary agencies in the area. This study examined the extent to which these developments affected farmers’ access to dryland crops. The study found that the low quantity of seed traded, high cost of production, and high seed supply prices constrained the development of local seed trade. It recommended developing and offering a range of varieties to farmers to increase demand, training to strengthen farmers’ capacity to manage seed onfarm, and reduction of high production and distribution costs through further research and institutional improvements. In addition, the “seed loans” model, which has been very effective in the area, should be strengthened.
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    Adoption of maize and wheat technologies in Eastern Africa: a synthesis of the findings of 22 case studies
    (CIMMYT, 2003) Doss, C.; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; De Groote, H.
    This paper synthesizes the findings of 22 micro-level studies on technology adoption carried out by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) with national agricultural research systems in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda during 1996-1999. The authors found that technology adoption is taking place across Eastern Africa but considerable scope remains to improve the productivity of smallholder agriculture in higher potential regions with high levels of adoption. Extension was the variable most highly correlated with technology adoption, and extension services continue to play an important role in disseminating information on new varieties and how to manage them. Despite the usefulness of the micro-study results, especially for priority setting and impact assessment, future adoption studies can be improved by standardizing definitions across studies and using sampling techniques that allow results to be generalized across wider areas. Finally, the paper suggests that maize and wheat breeding research should be made more relevant to the preferences and circumstances of farmers, that the link between research and extension should be strengthened and include the private sector and non-governmental organizations, that policies should support the development and expansion of efficient markets for inputs and outputs, and that rural credit systems should be strengthened.
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    Farmers' maize seed systems in Western Oromia, Ethiopia
    (EARO, 2001) Gemeda, A.; Aboma, G.; Verkuijl, H.; Mwangi, W.M.
    This study was initiated in western Shewa and eastern Wellega zones of Oromia Regional State to describe the seed system and assess the effectiveness of the seed testing and release mechanism; identify how farmers acquire and transfer maize seed; explore problems related to farmers’ seed acquisition and transfer mechanisms; and document the use of released maize varieties and hybrids. The major maize growing areas of western Oromia were purposively classified into four strata: Bako-Tibe and Chaliya Woredas in western Shewa, and Bila-Sayo and Sibu-Sire Woredas in eastern Wellega. Five peasant associations (PAs) were selected from each stratum. From each PA, 11 farmers were randomly selected and interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The total sample size was 220 farmers. Descriptive statistics and tobit analysis were used to assess farmers’ adoption of improved maize seed and their seed management practices and strategies. Total area under improved maize increased in the study area from 1992 to 1996 and total area under local varieties decreased. Since 1995, total production of improved maize has surpassed the total production of local varieties. During the 1996 cropping season, most farmers planted seed that had been saved from their previous harvest. The Ministry of Agriculture was the next most common seed source. In all woredas, BH-660 was the preferred maize cultivar for its high yield, seed size, and early maturity. The main problems constraining the use of improved maize seed were its high price, unavailability, and sometimes the distance traveled to acquire improved seed. All farmers in Bako-Tibe and Sibu-Sire and about 83% of farmers in Bako-Tibe and Bila-Sayo replaced their hybrids every year. The average time since farmers had purchased hybrid seed was 1.4 years in Chaliya, 2.3 in Bako-Tibe, 2.1 in Bila-Sayo, and 2 in Sibu-Sire. Most farmers selected seed during harvesting using good looking grain/cobs as the most important selection criterion. Seed quality was good, according to most farmers, and was mostly judged on the basis of grain filling and germination rate. Farmer education, extension services, off-farm income, and livestock units all significantly and positively influenced the area of land allocated to improved maize. A farmer’s proximity to a formal seed source had a positive impact on the allocation of land to improved maize. Next to the extension system, farmer-to-farmer seed exchange remained the most important mechanism for disseminating improved maize technology. The government can strengthen this informal system through the provision of low-interest finance, technical assistance, and publicly bred parent material. The extension system should advise farmers on the characteristics and correct adaptation zones of newly released maize cultivars. Maize breeding programs need to give proportionate weights to yield and non-yield characteristics when selecting the best varieties.
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    A comparative assessment of combine harvesting vis-a-vis conventional harvesting and threshing in Arsi Region, Ethiopia
    (EARO, 2000) Hassena, M.; Regassa Ensermu; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.
    This study describes wheat harvesting and threshing technologies in Arsi Region. Southeastern Ethiopia. and assesses their profitability compared to that of alternative wheat harvesting technologies. Data were collected from a random sample of 160 farmers from two purposively selected districts, Asasa and Etheya, where harves ting and threshing operations are becoming increasingly mechanized. Logit analysis showed that proximity to a hiring station, topography (accessibility). education level. and wheat area significantly affected farmers' decisions to adopt combine harvesting. Promoting the use of combine harvesters will widen yield and income gaps between farmers living in accessible and inaccessible areas, which has negative implications for overall economic development. Policies need to be directed towards the introduction of intermediate technologies for wheat threshing in less accessible areas. Educated farmers were better aware of the yield 1oss and consequent economic 1oss of using traditional harvesting and threshing methods. All farmers, particularly those without an education, need to be informed of the benefits of combine harvesting to increase adoption and reduce yield differences between literate and illiterate farmers. The profitability analysis determined that combine harvesting reduced yield 1osses, costs, and processing time and increased profitability. At the national level, the costs of combine harvesting are much lower than those incurred at the farmer level. Financial and economic profitability analyses indicate that combine harvesting is more profitable for the nation than manual harvesting and threshing.
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    Adoption of improved wheat technologies in Adaba and Dodola Woredas of the Bale highlands, Ethiopia
    (EARO, 2000) Hundie Kotu, B.; Verkuijl, H.; Mwangi, W.M.; Tanner, D.G.
    This study assessed farmers' current wheat management practices, determined the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of wheat technologies, and drew implications for research, extension, and policy. Adopters of improved varieties were younger, more educated, had larger families and farms, hired more labor, and owned more livestock. Farmers identified the following traits as important in wheat varieties: high yield, resistance to sprouting and lodging, seed color and size, and baking quality. The main constraint to adopting improved wheat varieties was the high price of seed. Both adopters and nonadopters preferred the wheat variety Pavon-76, suggesting that Pavon-76 has important traits that farmers appreciate and that should be considered in national and regional wheat breeding programs. In particular, farmers' perceptions of the disease and lodging resistance of improved wheats positively influenced their adoption. However, the perceived bread baking quality of the varieties negatively influenced adoption of improved wheats. This trait should be given higher priority by wheat breeding programs. The tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is an important factor in a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technologies (variety and fertilizer). Credit in kind not only relaxes the cash constraint currently existing in most farm communities, but also facilitates input availability for farmers. Hired labor is another determinant of a farmer's ability to adopt higher nitrogen fertilizer rates. This finding highlights the importance of developing labor-saving wheat production technologies to offset the cost of hired labor and expand the adoption of nitrogen fertilizer.
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    Adoption of improved bread wheat varieties and inorganic fertilizer by small-scale farmers in Yelmana Densa and Farta Districts of Northwestern Ethiopia
    (CIMMYT, 2001) Tesfaye Zegeye; Girma Taye Awake; Tanner, D.G.; Verkuijl, H.; Aklilu Agidie; Mwangi, W.M.
    A study was initiated in Yelmana Densa and Farta Districts of northwestern Ethiopia to assess the adoption of improved wheat varieties and inorganic fertilizer, factors affecting adoption, and ways in which research, extension, and policy could improve adoption. The study relied on primary data obtained from a random sample of 200 farmers and on secondary data on agricultural production and the study area. Adoption of improved wheat varieties increased from less than 1% in 1981 to 72% in 1998 and grew rapidly after the new national extension package program commenced. Adoption of chemical fertilizer had increased in the study area from less than 1% in 1976 to 77% in 1998 and had also grown markedly since the national extension package program came into effect. Over 93% of adopters of improved wheat varieties also used chemical fertilizer on their farms. The adoption of an improved wheat variety and use of chemical fertilizer were systematically related. Results of a logistic model showed that adoption of improved wheats was positively and significantly affected by farm size, farmers’ participation in on-farm demonstrations, and contacts made with extension agents, service cooperative representatives, or peasant association chairmen. Attendance at an agricultural training course, radio ownership, membership in a producer cooperative, farm size, total livestock units owned, and access to credit exerted a significant influence on the adoption of chemical fertilizer. To increase the flow of information to farmers (and the adoption of new technologies), the extension package program needs further strengthening. An efficient marketing system for inputs and outputs would benefit farmers by facilitating higher prices for marketed wheat and reducing the cost of fertilizer. The agricultural research system should put more emphasis on solving the problems of wheat producers and increase the frequency with which it releases new varieties that resist diseases and pests, yield well, and tolerate drought. To make the research effort more successful, seed of new varieties must be produced in sufficient quantities and quality for producers. To achieve this goal, the government must provide incentives and support to public and private seed companies, including infrastructure and credit. The formal credit system must address the credit constraints of smallscale farmers and increase awareness about the types of credit available for agricultural production. In addition, the government should encourage farmers to form service cooperatives or farmers’ groups to reduce transaction costs and improve loan recovery rates.
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    Determinants of fertilizer and manure use for maize production in Kiambu District, Kenya
    (KARI, 2001) Makokha, S.; Kimani, S.; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; Musembi, F.
    Farms in Kiambu District are very small owing to high population pressure and need to be intensively farmed to provide enough food for consumption and sale. Since soil nitrogen levels are low, the use of inorganic fertilizers and manure needs to be increased to improve land productivity. This study identified the socioeconomic factors influencing the use of inorganic fertilizers and manure for maize production in Kiambu District. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select divisions and farmers to be included in the study. Three divisions were randomly selected, from which a sample of 97 farmers was obtained. Data were collected at the farm level using a structured questionnaire. Soil and manure samples were taken from sample farms for laboratory analysis. The soil analysis showed that soils in Kiambu District have a high organic carbon content (3-4%), which reflects high levels of applied organic matter, most likely coupled with low rates of mineralization. Soils are low nitrogen (N), indicating that more N needs to be added. Phosphorus (P) levels are not severely limiting, which might reflect a build-up of previously applied P. The logistic regression showed that extension and off-farm income were significant factors influencing the adoption of manure. Age of household head, extension, membership in an organization, and off-farm income significantly influenced the use of inorganic fertilizer. The use of both inorganic fertilizer and manure was significantly influenced by extension, membership in an organization, household size, hired labor for manure application, livestock ownership, and off-farm income. Extension, the most significant factor affecting the use of manure and fertilizer, should promote adoption by providing advice on improved on-farm manure management and fertilizer recommendations, particularly in terms of crop suitability and timing and method of application. Also the extension service should advise fertilizers dealers to supply the packages required by farmers. To further aid adoption, capital (credit) constraints faced by farmers need to be relieved. Improved market information will assist farmers in securing the best prices for their outputs and inputs.
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    Adoption of improved wheat technologies by small-scale farmers in Mbeya District, Southern Highlands, Tanzania
    (United Republic of Tanzania, 2001) Mussei, A.; Mwanga, J.; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; Mongi, R.; Elanga, A.
    This study was conducted to gain an understanding of how small-scale farmers in Mbeya District have adopted improved wheat technologies promoted by the wheat research program at MARTI-Uyole. The specific objectives were to assess farmers' wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of improved wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension, and policy. A purposive multistage sampling procedure was used to select 202 farmers, 160 from Tembela Division and 42 from Isangati Division, which are two important wheat-growing areas in Mbeya District. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires and supplemented by secondary information obtained from MARTI-Uyole. Juhudi was the improved wheat variety grown by adopters. For all farmers, the most important characteristics preferred in a variety were high yield, marketability, grain color, and early maturity. In 1997, about 74% of sample farmers adopted improved wheat varieties. The rate of adoption increased between 1989 and 1995 for a number of reasons, including provision of seed and fertilizer by Sasakawa Global-2000 (SG-2000), the collapse of the pyrethrum industry , and market liberalization. After 1995, adoption declined because SG-2000 was phased out and the varieties had succumbed to stem rust and foliar diseases. Tobit analysis showed that farm size, family size, and the use of hired labor were significant factors affecting the proportion of land allocated to improved wheat. Farm size, family size, hired labor, and credit all significantly affected the amount of fertilizer used. Additional improved varieties need to be developed, not only to replace the old varieties, but to give farmers a wider choice. Fertilizer recommendations need to be reviewed to take into consideration farmers' circumstances such as cash availability and soil fertility. Extension services in the area should be increased and the link between extension workers and landholders strengthened to promote the adoption of improved wheat technologies. The formal credit market is only weakly involved in supplying credit to wheat farmers, but rising input prices, especially for fertilizer, make access to credit increasingly important for farmers. Policymakers and bankers should focus on providing loans to small-scale wheat farmers with high rates of loan recovery and low cost of credit. Farmers should also be encouraged to form their own savings and credit cooperatives at the village level. Policymakers should continue to encourage and support the private sector to invest in input acquisition and distribution so that inputs (especially seed and fertilizer) are available when farmers need them.
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    An assessment of the adoption of seed and fertilizer packages and the role of credit in smallholder maize production in Sidama and North Omo Zones, Ethiopia
    (EARO, 2000) Getahun Degu; Mwangi, W.M.; Verkuijl, H.; Abdishekur Wondimu
    This study identified factors that influenced the adoption of improved maize technologies and assessed the role of credit in Sidama and North Omo Zones of Ethiopia. A tobit analysis was used to test the factors affecting allocation of land to improved maize varieties and a logit model was used to analyze factors affecting the fertilizer use. Since the 1970s, the maize commodity research program has released 12 OPVs and 8 hybrids.Urea and DAP are the recommended fertilizers at 100 kg/ha each. The number of livestock, agroecological zone,extension services, use of credit, and membership in an organization significantly influenced the probability that land would be allocated to improved maize seed. Off-farm income, the use of hired labor and credit, and being a contact farmer significantly influenced the adoption of fertilizer. Credit was a significant factor in influencing the probability of adopting improved maize seed and fertilizer. The terms of credit should reflect farmers’socioeconomic circumstances. The current requirement that farmers must have 0.5 ha under maize to participate in the credit program is limiting, especially given that increased population pressure is reducing farm size. Membership in a peasant association (PA) was important in influencing the adoption of improved maize seed and fertilizer, and PAs should be strengthened to provide better information to farmers on improved agricultural practices. Although extension significantly affected the adoption of fertilizer and improved maize seed, the ratio of extension staff to farmers was high, and many farmers could not be visited. Increasing the number of extension staff and facilitating their transport would increase the adoption of improved maize seed and fertilizer. Livestock ownership significantly influenced the adoption of improved maize seed and fertilizer, because livestock sales provided cash to pay the 25% down payment on inputs (fertilizer and seed). Research, extension, and policy should increase support to livestock development.
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